Social, economic and environmental trade-offs of hydropower mega-dams in the Eastern Himalaya: Community perceptions from the Teesta River basin, Sikkim

Yesoda Tamang; Sunita Rai; Jampal Dorjee Bhutia; Prashanti Pradhan; Tabbasum Banu; Aditya Moktan Tamang

doi:10.64866/j.ijdscr.2026.10019

Authors

Yesoda Tamang Department of Zoology, Sikkim Alpine University, Main Campus, Kamrang, Namchi, Sikkim 737 126, India Author
Sunita Rai Department of Zoology, Sikkim Alpine University, Main Campus, Kamrang, Namchi, Sikkim 737 126, India Author
Jampal Dorjee Bhutia Department of Zoology, Sikkim Alpine University, Main Campus, Kamrang, Namchi, Sikkim 737 126, India Author https://orcid.org/0009-0006-8196-4398
Prashanti Pradhan Department of Zoology, Sikkim Alpine University, Main Campus, Kamrang, Namchi, Sikkim 737 126, India Author https://orcid.org/0009-0000-3048-4665
Tabbasum Banu Department of Zoology, Sikkim Alpine University, Main Campus, Kamrang, Namchi, Sikkim 737 126, India Author https://orcid.org/0009-0005-3866-6718
Aditya Moktan Tamang Department of Zoology, Sikkim Alpine University, Main Campus, Kamrang, Namchi, Sikkim 737 126, India Author https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6124-8814

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.64866/j.ijdscr.2026.10019

Keywords:

Mega-Dam Project, Teesta River Basin, Social-Economic-Environmental (SEE) Impacts, Livelihood Disruption, Public Perception

Abstract

Mega-dams are typically promoted for hydropower generation, flood control, and regional development; however, they frequently impose significant social, economic, and environmental costs on surrounding populations. This study examines the externalities of a Mega-Dam Project on the Teesta River basin in Sikkim, with particular focus on public perceptions across diverse socio-demographic groups. Using a structured questionnaire survey of 123 respondents, data were analyzed through SPSS (v.26) for normality, correlation, mean rank, and chi-square, with reliability confirmed by Cronbach’s Alpha (0.851), indicating high internal consistency. Results revealed that 47% of respondents perceived negative social impacts, especially displacement and the disruption of community networks. Environmental concerns were more pronounced, with 64% identifying biodiversity loss, ecosystem degradation, and water pollution as the most serious issues. Younger respondents showed heightened concern for environmental degradation, while older participants emphasized economic benefits. Overall, the findings underscore inequities in the distribution of costs and benefits, reflecting limited community consultation and inadequate safeguards. The study highlights the urgent need for participatory decision-making, inclusive policies, transparent benefit-sharing, and credible environmental protection measures to ensure that hydropower development in the Teesta basin follows a more equitable, sustainable, and community-centered trajectory.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Alikhani, H.A., Karbin, S., 2019. Water reservoirs are important sinks for greenhouse gases. Dams and Reservoirs 29, 128–132. https://doi.org/10.1680/jdare.18.00032

Alla, Y.M.K., Liu, L., 2021. Impacts of dams on the environment: A review. International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology 6. https://doi.org/10.22161/ijeab.61.9

Ansar, A., Flyvbjerg, B., Budzier, A., Lunn, D., 2014. Should we build more large dams? The actual costs of hydropower megaproject development. Energy Policy 69, 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.10.069

Arora, V., 2009. They are all set to dam(n) our future: Contested development through hydel power in democratic Sikkim. Sociological Bulletin 58, 94–114. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038022920090106

Baruah, S., 2017. Whose river is it, anyway? The political economy of hydropower in the Eastern Himalayas, in: Water Conflicts in Northeast India. Routledge India, pp. 116–144. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315168432-8

Baviskar, A., 2019. Nation’s body, river’s pulse: Narratives of anti-dam politics in India. Thesis Eleven 150, 26–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/0725513618822417

Baxter, R.M., 1977. Environmental effects of dams and impoundments. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 8, 255–283. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.08.110177.001351

Bera, B., 2025. A massive landslide damaged NHPC’s Teesta V hydropower station on 20th August 2024 at Balutar, Sikkim Himalayas. Natural Hazards Research 5, 372–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nhres.2024.12.005

Bergkamp, G., McCartney, M., Dugan, P., McNeely, J., Acreman, M., 2000. Dams, ecosystem functions and environmental restoration. Thematic Review II.1, 1–187.

Biswas, A.K., 1999. Management of international waters: Opportunities and constraints. International Journal of Water Resources Development 15, 429–441. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900629948691

Bomzon, S.D., Aditya, T., Raj, V.D., 2023. Examining disruptions of social systems due to large dam projects in the North East, in: E3S Web of Conferences. EDP Sciences, 01011. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202345301011

Costa, A., Caldas, J.C., Coelho, R., Ferreiro, M.D.F., Gonçalves, V., 2016. The building of a dam: Value conflicts in public decision-making. Environmental Values 25, 215–234. https://doi.org/10.3197/096327116X14552114338909

Del Bene, D., Scheidel, A., Temper, L., 2018. More dams, more violence? A global analysis on resistances and repression around conflictive dams through co-produced knowledge. Sustainability Science 13, 617–633. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-018-0558-1

Dukpa, R.D., Joshi, D., Boelens, R., 2019. Contesting hydropower dams in the Eastern Himalaya: The cultural politics of identity, territory and self-governance institutions in Sikkim, India. Water 11, 412. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11030412

Flyvbjerg, B., Bruzelius, N., Rothengatter, W., 2003. Megaprojects and Risk: An Anatomy of Ambition. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107050891

Gergan, M.D., 2020. Disastrous hydropower, uneven regional development, and decolonization in India’s Eastern Himalayan borderlands. Political Geography 80, 102175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2020.102175

Grumbine, R.E., Pandit, M.K., 2013. Threats from India’s Himalaya dams. Science 339, 36–37. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1227211

Huber, A., Joshi, D., 2015. Hydropower, anti-politics, and the opening of new political spaces in the Eastern Himalayas. World Development 76, 13–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.06.006

Jabeen, T., Das, M., Sarkar, A., 2024. Assessment of the impact of big dams in the Himalayan mountain environment system: Management and sustainability, in: The Himalayas in the Anthropocene: Environment and Development. Springer Nature Switzerland, Cham, pp. 93–132. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50101-2_4

Kim, K., 2025. Grassroots resistance against hydropower dams: Community campaigns and civilian–rebel cooperation in Myanmar. Environment and Security 3, 319–341. https://doi.org/10.1177/27538796241283084

Kingsford, R.T., 2000. Ecological impacts of dams, water diversions and river management on floodplain wetlands in Australia. Austral Ecology 25, 109–127. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1442-9993.2000.01036.x

Kukreja, M., 2023. The ‘voice’ of the public during Social Impact Assessment (SIA): A case study of Teesta IV hydroelectric project in India. International Journal of Research in Social Science and Humanities 4, 14–18. https://doi.org/10.47505/ijrss.2023.v4.7.3

Lepcha, T., 2017. Hydropower projects on the Teesta River: Movement against mega dams in Sikkim, in: Water Conflicts in Northeast India. Routledge India, pp. 242–261. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315168432-16

McCartney, M., 2009. Living with dams: Managing the environmental impacts. Water Policy 11, 121–139. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2009.108

Menon, M., Kohli, K., Shah, P., 2003. Large Dams in Northeast India: Rivers, Forests, People. Kalpavriksh & South Asia Network on Dams, Rivers & People (SANDRP).

Molle, F., 2009. River-basin planning and management: The social life of a concept. Geoforum 40, 484–494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2009.03.004

Pandit, M.K., Grumbine, R.E., 2012. Potential effects of ongoing and proposed hydropower development on terrestrial biological diversity in the Indian Himalaya. Conservation Biology 26, 1061–1071. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2012.01918.x

Prairie, Y.T., Alm, J., Beaulieu, J., Barros, N., Battin, T., Cole, J., et al., 2018. Greenhouse gas emissions from freshwater reservoirs: What does the atmosphere see? Ecosystems 21, 1058–1071. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-017-0198-9

Rai, N., Khawas, V., 2021. Climate change and hydropower development in the Eastern Himalaya: Emerging conflicts in the Upper Tista Catchment of Sikkim, India (preprint). https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-393218/v1

Scudder, T.T., 2012. The Future of Large Dams: Dealing with Social, Environmental, Institutional and Political Costs. Routledge.

Shi, H., Chen, J., Liu, S., Sivakumar, B., 2019. The role of large dams in promoting economic development under the pressure of population growth. Sustainability 11, 2965. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11102965

Sikder, M.T., Elahi, K.M., 2013. Environmental degradation and global warming—consequences of Himalayan mega dams. American Journal of Environmental Protection 2, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajep.20130201.11

Wu, H., Chen, J., Xu, J., Zeng, G., Sang, L., Liu, Q., et al., 2019. Effects of dam construction on biodiversity: A review. Journal of Cleaner Production 221, 480–489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.03.001

Ziolkowski, M., 2024. Mega-Dams in World Literature: Literary Responses to Twentieth-Century Dam Building. University Press of Colorado.